Werewolf witch trials were witch trials combined with werewolf trials. Belief in werewolves developed parallel to the belief in European witches, in the course of the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. In folklore, a werewolf, or occasionally lycanthrope, is a human with the ability to shapeshift into a wolf, either purposely or after being placed under a curse or affliction. For some, the presence of werewolves on earth was just as real as you and I; and while the idea of ‘monsters’ are predominantly a product of the human mind, in Europe, many lived in centennial fear that these creatures were entirely real.
One of the first known accounts of somebody being accused for lycanthropy was in France, in 1521. Michel Verdun, Philibert Montot, and Pierre Bourgot were arrested and tortured by French authorities to confess to the crime of lycanthropy, after a wolf attack had supposedly occurred in a nearby settlement. They were forced to confess to the notion that they received a type of ointment that granted them their shape-shifting abilities, in a kind of ‘deal-with-the-devil’ sort of situation. By disavowing God, they were supposedly granted protection – along with a relentless, terrible power. Consequently, all three of these men were found guilty of lycanthropy, and swiftly executed via burning at the stake by French authorities.
Gilles Garnier is another notable case, albeit much more twisted. Garnier was a French hermit, but unlike Verdun, Montot, or Bourgot, Garnier was actually a cannibalistic serial killer. After a few children had gone missing or were eventually found dead, nearby authorities were very quick to assume that this was the work of a werewolf, and encouraged people to help in finding and slaying the “beast”. Soon after, a group of workers were able to apprehend and arrest Garnier after spotting him with a child’s corpse in the middle of the night. During his trial, Garnier claimed that he was visited by a specter during one of his desperate hunts for food in the forest. The specter supposedly promised Garnier an ointment that would give him wolf-like powers, and assist him in hunting more effectively. It was during this trial when he confessed to the murders of roughly 4 children, killing and cannibalizing them. Garnier was found guilty of lycanthropy, as well as witchcraft, and was burned at the stake.
Peter Stumpp is yet another noteworthy case, if only for the sheer cruelty and brutality in which he was executed. After having confessed to acts of lycanthropy, witchcraft, murder, incest, and cannibalism, Stumpp was placed on an execution wheel – where he had his skin torn off with pincers, his limbs smashed with the blunt part of an axe, his head chopped off, and his body burned. Authorities made an example of Stumpp by placing his severed head on a pole next to the execution wheel, along with a wolf symbol – in an attempt to ward off any behavior pertaining to lycanthropy.
These are just a handful of incidents that occurred during this time. As many as 18 werewolf-related trials are reputed to have taken place between the years of 1527 and 1725, just shy of 200 years – all of which were in Europe.
The tool that built the Roman Empire — The Dolabra
The gladius gets the most fame and glory for being the implement of empire building when it comes to ancient Roman history. However, credit for literally building the Roman Empire is more deserved for a handy multi purpose tool called the dolabra. With a pick on one end and an axe head on the other, the dolabra has filled many roles and purposes throughout Roman history. It could be used for chopping down trees or chopping wood, breaking up stone, breaking up tough soil, and could be wielded as a formidable weapon. It has been used by Roman woodsman, carpenters, miners, farmers, shipbuilders, construction workers, engineers, soldiers, it was even used by ritual priests to slaughter large animals for sacrifices.
For the Roman legions the Dolabra was an indispensable tool and weapon. While Roman soldiers are famed for being among the best soldiers in the ancient world, Roman soldiers were also master builders. When in war the Romans built extensive fortifications. When on the march, the Romans would surround their nightly encampment with a stockade so that they could rest within the safety of a fortified camp. During the Siege of Alesia in 52 BC, soldiers under Julius Caesar built an 11 mile long wall around Alesia to besiege the defenders. Simultaneously, they built another 13 mile long wall to protect themselves from outside counterattack. This wall included a palisade with battlements and towers, a series of trenches, and various booby traps.
Another famous example was in 66 AD when Roman forces laid to siege to the fortress of Massada, held by Jewish rebels during the First Jewish Revolt. In order to capture the fortress, the Romans built a 375 foot tall ramp.
When not at war, Roman soldiers were often used as laborers on public works projects such as roads, bridges, walls, aqueducts, docks, and canals. Thus, the dolabra and other common tools were standard issue items for the Roman soldier.
While the dolabra was primarily used as a tool, there were many occasions when it was also pressed into service as a deadly weapon. During the Gallic Wars in 57 BC, Roman soldiers were busy building their nightly fortifications when they were ambushed by an army of Belgic tribesman. In a snap instance the Romans hastily formed battle formations and lacking time to retrieve their weapons and armor successfully fought off the assault with their building and entrenching tools. Another instance occurred in 21 AD during the Florus and Sacrovir revolt, where enemy rebels used heavily armored gladiators called crupellarii as their front ranks. The Romans could not pierce the armor of the crupellarii with their swords, so they retrieved their pickaxes and mattocks to batter the rebel gladiators into submission.
La Route Des Alpes Services Automobiles de Tourisme. “De la mer à la haute montagne.” This French travel poster shows tourists and a guide in a PLM tourbus looking down on a landscape featuring a road map leading from Nice to Evian. Vintage travel poster, circa 1920.
